Nazar Research Center for Art, Architecture and Urbanism (NRC) The Monthly Scientific Journal of Bagh-e Nazar 1735-9635 23 156 (Specified Issue of International Conference on “Architectural Heritage at Risk,”) 2026 05 22 International Conference on Architectural Heritage at Risk International Conference on Architectural Heritage at Risk 5 6 244402 10.22034/bagh.2026.244402 FA Mehdi Kazempour Faculty of Cultural Materials Conservation, Tabriz Islamic Art University, Tabriz, Iran Journal Article Architectural heritage, as a historical, cultural, and identity-defining asset, is currently facing extensive and escalating threats more than ever before. This heritage not only reflects the past and human civilizational achievements but also plays a fundamental role in shaping collective identity, social cohesion, and the cultural continuity of societies. Nevertheless, systematic destruction caused by wars and armed conflicts, gradual degradation resulting from climate change, extensive damage from natural disasters such as earthquakes, floods, and storms, as well as poor planning, managerial negligence, and improper interventions, have exposed a significant portion of the world’s historical and architectural monuments to the risk of annihilation or irreparable harm. The architectural heritage of Islamic countries, stretching from Andalusia in the west to Southeast Asia in the east, constitutes a rare and unparalleled treasure of art, culture, technical knowledge, and historical experience. This heritage encompasses prominent religious, educational, and governmental edifices, historical urban and rural fabrics, public spaces, as well as traditional construction systems and indigenous technologies developed over centuries. These monuments clearly reflect the cultural, religious, and social values of the people in Islamic lands, illustrating the creative interaction between humans and their environment, climate, and natural resources.In recent decades, unfortunately, a large number of invaluable architectural monuments in Islamic countries—including Palestine, Syria, Iraq, Yemen, Afghanistan, Libya, and even Iran—have either been completely destroyed or are under severe threat. The destruction of architectural heritage in these regions is not merely the loss of buildings; rather, it signifies the eradication of historical memory, the weakening of cultural identity, and the disruption of historical continuity within societies. Therefore, safeguarding this heritage is not solely a specialized or national duty, but rather a shared responsibility at the regional and international levels. Given the foundational role of architectural heritage in strengthening identity, solidarity, and cultural dialogue in the Islamic world, organizing scientific and specialized conferences in this field is an undeniable necessity.Emphasizing the invaluable monuments and sites of the Islamic world, the International Conference on “Architectural Heritage at Risk” seeks to create a scientific platform for scholars, researchers, conservation experts, and cultural managers to convene. It aims to analyze the current situation, exchange experiences, and provide practical and scientific solutions for the conservation, restoration, and sustainable management of this shared treasure.The International Conference on “Architectural Heritage at Risk” was held on October 19–20, 2025, in collaboration with the Rab’-e Rashidi Scientific, Cultural and Historical Complex, the Research Centre for Islamic History, Art and Culture (IRCICA) affiliated with the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), and Tabriz Islamic Art University. During this conference, following the peer-review process of the submitted full papers, 16 articles were selected for oral presentation. Additionally, from the total submissions, 18 papers were forwarded for publication in scientific-research journals approved by the Ministry of Science, Research and Technology, while the remaining accepted papers were published in the conference proceedings. This conference represents an effective step toward raising awareness, strengthening scientific collaborations, and drawing global attention to the imperative of protecting the endangered architectural heritage of the Islamic world. Architectural heritage, as a historical, cultural, and identity-defining asset, is currently facing extensive and escalating threats more than ever before. This heritage not only reflects the past and human civilizational achievements but also plays a fundamental role in shaping collective identity, social cohesion, and the cultural continuity of societies. Nevertheless, systematic destruction caused by wars and armed conflicts, gradual degradation resulting from climate change, extensive damage from natural disasters such as earthquakes, floods, and storms, as well as poor planning, managerial negligence, and improper interventions, have exposed a significant portion of the world’s historical and architectural monuments to the risk of annihilation or irreparable harm. The architectural heritage of Islamic countries, stretching from Andalusia in the west to Southeast Asia in the east, constitutes a rare and unparalleled treasure of art, culture, technical knowledge, and historical experience. This heritage encompasses prominent religious, educational, and governmental edifices, historical urban and rural fabrics, public spaces, as well as traditional construction systems and indigenous technologies developed over centuries. These monuments clearly reflect the cultural, religious, and social values of the people in Islamic lands, illustrating the creative interaction between humans and their environment, climate, and natural resources.In recent decades, unfortunately, a large number of invaluable architectural monuments in Islamic countries—including Palestine, Syria, Iraq, Yemen, Afghanistan, Libya, and even Iran—have either been completely destroyed or are under severe threat. The destruction of architectural heritage in these regions is not merely the loss of buildings; rather, it signifies the eradication of historical memory, the weakening of cultural identity, and the disruption of historical continuity within societies. Therefore, safeguarding this heritage is not solely a specialized or national duty, but rather a shared responsibility at the regional and international levels. Given the foundational role of architectural heritage in strengthening identity, solidarity, and cultural dialogue in the Islamic world, organizing scientific and specialized conferences in this field is an undeniable necessity.Emphasizing the invaluable monuments and sites of the Islamic world, the International Conference on “Architectural Heritage at Risk” seeks to create a scientific platform for scholars, researchers, conservation experts, and cultural managers to convene. It aims to analyze the current situation, exchange experiences, and provide practical and scientific solutions for the conservation, restoration, and sustainable management of this shared treasure.The International Conference on “Architectural Heritage at Risk” was held on October 19–20, 2025, in collaboration with the Rab’-e Rashidi Scientific, Cultural and Historical Complex, the Research Centre for Islamic History, Art and Culture (IRCICA) affiliated with the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), and Tabriz Islamic Art University. During this conference, following the peer-review process of the submitted full papers, 16 articles were selected for oral presentation. Additionally, from the total submissions, 18 papers were forwarded for publication in scientific-research journals approved by the Ministry of Science, Research and Technology, while the remaining accepted papers were published in the conference proceedings. This conference represents an effective step toward raising awareness, strengthening scientific collaborations, and drawing global attention to the imperative of protecting the endangered architectural heritage of the Islamic world. https://www.bagh-sj.com/article_244402_9c1345491e2f832b6bac494bfcbc6820.pdf

Nazar Research Center for Art, Architecture and Urbanism (NRC) The Monthly Scientific Journal of Bagh-e Nazar 1735-9635 23 156 (Specified Issue of International Conference on “Architectural Heritage at Risk,”) 2026 05 22 Evaluation of Traditional and Modern Approaches to Reinforcing Adobe Brick Against Environmental Factors Evaluation of Traditional and Modern Approaches to Reinforcing Adobe Brick Against Environmental Factors 7 20 243070 10.22034/bagh.2026.567606.5964 FA Somayeh Fadaei Nezhad Bahramjerdi Department of Iranian Architectural Studies&Architectural and Urban Heritage Conservation, School of Architecture, College of Fine Arts, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran 0000-0001-5761-8141 Somayeh Pahlevan Department of Iranian Architectural Studies&Architectural and Urban Heritage Conservation, School of Architecture, College of Fine Arts, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran 0000-0002-8990-0392 Journal Article 2026 02 26 Statement statement: Adobe buildings—among the oldest works and human-made structures—were once the primary shelters for people and, even today, still maintain their use in parts of the world. As one of the oldest construction materials, adobe has continuously been exposed to vulnerability against environmental factors such as moisture, rainfall, temperature fluctuations, and weathering. This issue, particularly in historic adobe structures, leads to gradual deterioration and a reduction in the structures’ durability. In this context, the need to protect these adobe ensembles—whose structural damage has already been exacerbated by natural and human factors—becomes evident. Research objective:This research aims to introduce and evaluate traditional and modern strategies used to reinforce adobe brick against damaging environmental factors, including moisture. Research method: The present study is descriptive-analytical. Data collection is conducted through documentary studies (library-based research). Conclusion: The results indicate that although traditional methods remain important due to their compatibility with local climate, accessibility, and low cost, their effectiveness under harsh climatic conditions is limited. In contrast, modern technologies have been able to improve the durability of adobe more effectively, although high costs and incomplete compatibility with historical fabric are among their main challenges. Ultimately, the study emphasizes that combining traditional and modern approaches—and applying findings from research—shows that traditional methods such as adding straw and using straw-clay (kāhgāl) plaster, despite being simple, inexpensive, and environmentally compatible, have limited durability against moisture and severe conditions. Conversely, modern solutions based on chemical and nano-materials provide greater mechanical resistance and stability. Therefore, the best approach is to integrate these two categories of methods to achieve both durability and architectural authenticity. Statement statement: Adobe buildings—among the oldest works and human-made structures—were once the primary shelters for people and, even today, still maintain their use in parts of the world. As one of the oldest construction materials, adobe has continuously been exposed to vulnerability against environmental factors such as moisture, rainfall, temperature fluctuations, and weathering. This issue, particularly in historic adobe structures, leads to gradual deterioration and a reduction in the structures’ durability. In this context, the need to protect these adobe ensembles—whose structural damage has already been exacerbated by natural and human factors—becomes evident. Research objective:This research aims to introduce and evaluate traditional and modern strategies used to reinforce adobe brick against damaging environmental factors, including moisture. Research method: The present study is descriptive-analytical. Data collection is conducted through documentary studies (library-based research). Conclusion: The results indicate that although traditional methods remain important due to their compatibility with local climate, accessibility, and low cost, their effectiveness under harsh climatic conditions is limited. In contrast, modern technologies have been able to improve the durability of adobe more effectively, although high costs and incomplete compatibility with historical fabric are among their main challenges. Ultimately, the study emphasizes that combining traditional and modern approaches—and applying findings from research—shows that traditional methods such as adding straw and using straw-clay (kāhgāl) plaster, despite being simple, inexpensive, and environmentally compatible, have limited durability against moisture and severe conditions. Conversely, modern solutions based on chemical and nano-materials provide greater mechanical resistance and stability. Therefore, the best approach is to integrate these two categories of methods to achieve both durability and architectural authenticity.

https://www.bagh-sj.com/article_243070_70b3459eb9c90dd4f0de6b605b621354.pdf

Nazar Research Center for Art, Architecture and Urbanism (NRC) The Monthly Scientific Journal of Bagh-e Nazar 1735-9635 23 156 (Specified Issue of International Conference on “Architectural Heritage at Risk,”) 2026 05 22 From Static Restoration to Adaptive Resilience: Bio-Lime as a Material-Oriented Biomimetic Approach to Historic Heritage Conservation (Case Study: Rab’-e Rashidi Tabriz) From Static Restoration to Adaptive Resilience: Bio-Lime as a Material-Oriented Biomimetic Approach to Historic Heritage Conservation (Case Study: Rab’-e Rashidi Tabriz) 21 32 243906 10.22034/bagh.2026.567762.5962 FA Zahra Keynezhad Department of Architectural Technology, Faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning, Tabriz Islamic Art University, Tabriz, Iran Farhad Akhundi Department of Architectural Technology, Faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning, Tabriz Islamic Art University, Tabriz, Iran Journal Article 2026 02 22 Problem statement: In recent years, the increasing frequency of natural and human-induced crises, such as earthquakes, war, and climate change, has created serious challenges for the conservation and reconstruction of historic architectural heritage. Conventional approaches to restoration and reconstruction are predominantly reproductive and form-oriented in nature, paying limited attention to adaptive, temporal, and resilient mechanisms at the material level. In this context, biomimetics, as an approach inspired by the behavioral and process-based logic of nature, can provide a theoretical foundation for rethinking the adaptive reconstruction of historic heritage, particularly when it moves beyond mere formal imitation and becomes oriented toward the behavior of materials. Research objective: Focusing on Bio-Lime as an example of material-oriented biomimetics, this study seeks to explain the capacities of self-healing lime-based materials in the restoration and adaptive reconstruction of architectural heritage. Research method: This study employed a comparative analysis and a systematic review of recent studies in the fields of self-healing materials, lime mortars, and bio-based additives. The selected studies were analyzed according to criteria such as material type, self-healing mechanism, degree of compatibility with historic restoration, and functional outcomes. Conclusion: The findings indicate that, unlike conventional self-healing systems based on concrete, lime-based materials—and Bio-Lime in particular—possess an inherent capacity for gradual, low-energy, and historically compatible self-healing through natural processes such as carbonation, rehydration, and microstructural modification. The findings further suggest that bio-based additives can purposefully enhance this capacity and contribute to improving the durability and physical resilience of historic buildings without causing chemical incompatibility. Accordingly, this study proposes a conceptual framework for adaptive reconstruction based on material-oriented biomimetics, which can support a transition from static restoration toward adaptive and future-oriented reconstruction in historic sites in Iran, particularly Rabʿ-e Rashidi in Tabriz. Problem statement: In recent years, the increasing frequency of natural and human-induced crises, such as earthquakes, war, and climate change, has created serious challenges for the conservation and reconstruction of historic architectural heritage. Conventional approaches to restoration and reconstruction are predominantly reproductive and form-oriented in nature, paying limited attention to adaptive, temporal, and resilient mechanisms at the material level. In this context, biomimetics, as an approach inspired by the behavioral and process-based logic of nature, can provide a theoretical foundation for rethinking the adaptive reconstruction of historic heritage, particularly when it moves beyond mere formal imitation and becomes oriented toward the behavior of materials. Research objective: Focusing on Bio-Lime as an example of material-oriented biomimetics, this study seeks to explain the capacities of self-healing lime-based materials in the restoration and adaptive reconstruction of architectural heritage. Research method: This study employed a comparative analysis and a systematic review of recent studies in the fields of self-healing materials, lime mortars, and bio-based additives. The selected studies were analyzed according to criteria such as material type, self-healing mechanism, degree of compatibility with historic restoration, and functional outcomes. Conclusion: The findings indicate that, unlike conventional self-healing systems based on concrete, lime-based materials—and Bio-Lime in particular—possess an inherent capacity for gradual, low-energy, and historically compatible self-healing through natural processes such as carbonation, rehydration, and microstructural modification. The findings further suggest that bio-based additives can purposefully enhance this capacity and contribute to improving the durability and physical resilience of historic buildings without causing chemical incompatibility. Accordingly, this study proposes a conceptual framework for adaptive reconstruction based on material-oriented biomimetics, which can support a transition from static restoration toward adaptive and future-oriented reconstruction in historic sites in Iran, particularly Rabʿ-e Rashidi in Tabriz.

https://www.bagh-sj.com/article_243906_ac51e351308e9aaeaa61f5f08b2ab3c4.pdf

Nazar Research Center for Art, Architecture and Urbanism (NRC) The Monthly Scientific Journal of Bagh-e Nazar 1735-9635 23 156 (Specified Issue of International Conference on “Architectural Heritage at Risk,”) 2026 05 22 The Conflict Between Urban Development and Architectural Heritage Conservation in Iran’s Historic Cities (An Analysis of the Destructive Impacts of Development Projects on the Heritage Fabrics of Tabriz and Yazd Abstract) The Conflict Between Urban Development and Architectural Heritage Conservation in Iran’s Historic Cities (An Analysis of the Destructive Impacts of Development Projects on the Heritage Fabrics of Tabriz and Yazd Abstract) 33 54 243907 10.22034/bagh.2026.568404.5966 FA Alireza Dehghany Ashkezari Department of Urban Planning, Faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning, Tabriz Islamic Art University, Iran 0009-0001-3698-6006 Melika Fadavi Department of Urban Planning, Faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning, Tabriz Islamic Art University, Iran 0000-0003-1007-4663 Mohamad Taghi Pirbabaei Department of Urban Planning, Faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning, Tabriz Islamic Art University, Iran 0000-0002-6305-9611 Journal Article 2025 12 28 Problem statement: The tension between the imperatives of modern urban development (such as commercialization and tourism infrastructure) and the necessity of architectural heritage conservation threatens the integrity of the historic fabrics of Tabriz and Yazd. Furthermore, the lack of precise documentation and the weak enforcement of conservation laws have exacerbated this crisis. Research objective: To conduct a quantitative and qualitative analysis of the destructive impacts of development on architectural heritage, identify the spatial patterns of degradation, and evaluate the effectiveness of existing conservation frameworks. Research method: This study employs an “explanatory sequential mixed-methods design” grounded in the “Historic Urban Landscape (HUL)” paradigm. In the quantitative phase, 156 heritage parcels were utilized as “urban sensors” for field surveying and GIS analysis. In the qualitative phase, employing a “nested sampling” strategy with a focus on “deviant cases,” 47 interviews were conducted with stakeholders of the most severely degraded parcels to inductively generalize micro-level observations. Conclusion: The findings confirm that micro-level alterations have systematically driven destructive macro-level transformations. Specifically, 34.6% of the samples in Tabriz (predominantly due to commercial regeneration in the Bazaar) and 28.6% in Yazd (driven by rapid hotel construction in the Fahadan district) have sustained structural damage. The research identifies three primary mechanisms driving this loss—”hidden degradation,” “structural instability,” and “gentrification”—and emphasizes the urgent need for a transition to the HUL conservation approach. Problem statement: The tension between the imperatives of modern urban development (such as commercialization and tourism infrastructure) and the necessity of architectural heritage conservation threatens the integrity of the historic fabrics of Tabriz and Yazd. Furthermore, the lack of precise documentation and the weak enforcement of conservation laws have exacerbated this crisis. Research objective: To conduct a quantitative and qualitative analysis of the destructive impacts of development on architectural heritage, identify the spatial patterns of degradation, and evaluate the effectiveness of existing conservation frameworks. Research method: This study employs an “explanatory sequential mixed-methods design” grounded in the “Historic Urban Landscape (HUL)” paradigm. In the quantitative phase, 156 heritage parcels were utilized as “urban sensors” for field surveying and GIS analysis. In the qualitative phase, employing a “nested sampling” strategy with a focus on “deviant cases,” 47 interviews were conducted with stakeholders of the most severely degraded parcels to inductively generalize micro-level observations. Conclusion: The findings confirm that micro-level alterations have systematically driven destructive macro-level transformations. Specifically, 34.6% of the samples in Tabriz (predominantly due to commercial regeneration in the Bazaar) and 28.6% in Yazd (driven by rapid hotel construction in the Fahadan district) have sustained structural damage. The research identifies three primary mechanisms driving this loss—”hidden degradation,” “structural instability,” and “gentrification”—and emphasizes the urgent need for a transition to the HUL conservation approach.

https://www.bagh-sj.com/article_243907_502ddb9614a22e642008145cd642184d.pdf

https://www.bagh-sj.com/article_243176_d070ba93b30f67858201a1b9b16e9864.pdf

Nazar Research Center for Art, Architecture and Urbanism (NRC) The Monthly Scientific Journal of Bagh-e Nazar 1735-9635 23 156 (Specified Issue of International Conference on “Architectural Heritage at Risk,”) 2026 05 22 Assessment of the Tourism Carrying Capacity of the Rab’ e Rashidi Historical Site from the Perspective of Overtourism and Undertourism Assessment of the Tourism Carrying Capacity of the Rab’ e Rashidi Historical Site from the Perspective of Overtourism and Undertourism 67 78 242960 10.22034/bagh.2026.567899.5963 FA Samine Nikpour Department of Conservation of Historic Buildings and Urban Fabrics, Faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning, Tabriz Islamic Art University, Iran 0009-0004-7385-6077 Hamze Pirbabaei Department of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture and Urbanism, Tabriz Islamic Art University, Iran 0000-0002-5545-3440 Journal Article 2025 12 22 Problem statement: In recent years, tourism growth in many historical sites and monuments has been accompanied by factors such as overtourism and undertourism, phenomena that can threaten the physical, managerial, and perceptual sustainability of cultural heritage. Despite its outstanding historical value, the Rabʿ e Rashidi historical site in Tabriz, as one of the most prominent complexes of the Ilkhanid period, has often been overlooked within the urban tourism system of Tabriz. Due to the absence of quantitative and spatial analyses concerning visitor distribution patterns, intensity of spatial use, and the tourism carrying capacity, the site has remained under examined in these respects. Research objective: This study aims to evaluate the tourism carrying capacity of the Rabʿ e Rashidi historical site in Tabriz with the purpose of addressing the imbalance in tourism activity and planning for the reduction of physical degradation of the archaeological complex. The research seeks to answer the following question: Considering contemporary approaches to heritage site tourism, what is the tourism carrying capacity of the Rabʿ e Rashidi historical site in Tabriz? Research method: This research employs a mixed method strategy, integrating quantitative and qualitative approaches through library studies and field surveys. The study estimates the Limits of Acceptable Change (LAC) and presents results across three primary levels of carrying capacity analysis: Physical Carrying Capacity (PCC), Real Carrying Capacity (RCC), and Effective Carrying Capacity (ECC). Conclusion: Findings indicate that this valuable historical site, when physical, environmental, and managerial factors are taken into account, will fall within the range of minimal tourism by 2025. According to the calculated data, of the original 90 hectare area of Rabʿ e Rashidi, currently less than 13 hectares are recoverable, and the site is capable of hosting more than 5,000 visitors per day. However, on average, only about 7 visitors per day have visited the site throughout the year. Problem statement: In recent years, tourism growth in many historical sites and monuments has been accompanied by factors such as overtourism and undertourism, phenomena that can threaten the physical, managerial, and perceptual sustainability of cultural heritage. Despite its outstanding historical value, the Rabʿ e Rashidi historical site in Tabriz, as one of the most prominent complexes of the Ilkhanid period, has often been overlooked within the urban tourism system of Tabriz. Due to the absence of quantitative and spatial analyses concerning visitor distribution patterns, intensity of spatial use, and the tourism carrying capacity, the site has remained under examined in these respects. Research objective: This study aims to evaluate the tourism carrying capacity of the Rabʿ e Rashidi historical site in Tabriz with the purpose of addressing the imbalance in tourism activity and planning for the reduction of physical degradation of the archaeological complex. The research seeks to answer the following question: Considering contemporary approaches to heritage site tourism, what is the tourism carrying capacity of the Rabʿ e Rashidi historical site in Tabriz? Research method: This research employs a mixed method strategy, integrating quantitative and qualitative approaches through library studies and field surveys. The study estimates the Limits of Acceptable Change (LAC) and presents results across three primary levels of carrying capacity analysis: Physical Carrying Capacity (PCC), Real Carrying Capacity (RCC), and Effective Carrying Capacity (ECC). Conclusion: Findings indicate that this valuable historical site, when physical, environmental, and managerial factors are taken into account, will fall within the range of minimal tourism by 2025. According to the calculated data, of the original 90 hectare area of Rabʿ e Rashidi, currently less than 13 hectares are recoverable, and the site is capable of hosting more than 5,000 visitors per day. However, on average, only about 7 visitors per day have visited the site throughout the year.

https://www.bagh-sj.com/article_242960_a19d74cc8e057e421d9db3795f22dd4e.pdf

Nazar Research Center for Art, Architecture and Urbanism (NRC) The Monthly Scientific Journal of Bagh-e Nazar 1735-9635 23 156 (Specified Issue of International Conference on “Architectural Heritage at Risk,”) 2026 05 22 Mountain Fortresses of Northwestern Iran: A Study on the Risks to Defensive Architectural Heritage Mountain Fortresses of Northwestern Iran: A Study on the Risks to Defensive Architectural Heritage 79 96 243908 10.22034/bagh.2026.571175.5976 FA Mehdi Kazempour Faculty of Cultural Materials Conservation, Tabriz Islamic Art University, Tabriz, Iran Journal Article 2026 01 06 Problem statement: In Iran, fortresses are generally classified into two categories: mountain fortresses and plain fortresses. Mountain fortresses were constructed along mountain passes, on ridgelines, beside valleys, or near rivers, primarily with the purpose of providing security and defense. In northwestern Iran, due to its distinctive topographical features, thousands of mountain fortresses exist. These structures have been built from the fourth millennium BCE coinciding with the emergence of political and social instability and their construction continued until the Qajar period. The architectural plans of these fortresses were strongly influenced by the topographical characteristics of their surrounding landscapes, and local stone materials were predominantly used in their construction. Owing to their mountainous geographical setting and the use of indigenous materials, these fortresses are highly vulnerable to various forms of deterioration. The research addresses two main questions: What materials were most commonly used in the construction of mountain fortresses? And which factors have had the greatest impact on their deterioration? Research method: This article, employing a descriptive-analytical method and relying on both fieldwork and library-based studies, examines the natural and human factors contributing to the destruction of these monuments, including precipitation, frost action, soil erosion, and anthropogenic impacts. Conclusion: The findings indicate that the primary construction materials of mountain fortresses in northwestern Iran are stone and sarooj mortar, while factors such as erosion, earthquakes, human intervention, and environmental conditions have had the most significant impact on their destruction. Problem statement: In Iran, fortresses are generally classified into two categories: mountain fortresses and plain fortresses. Mountain fortresses were constructed along mountain passes, on ridgelines, beside valleys, or near rivers, primarily with the purpose of providing security and defense. In northwestern Iran, due to its distinctive topographical features, thousands of mountain fortresses exist. These structures have been built from the fourth millennium BCE coinciding with the emergence of political and social instability and their construction continued until the Qajar period. The architectural plans of these fortresses were strongly influenced by the topographical characteristics of their surrounding landscapes, and local stone materials were predominantly used in their construction. Owing to their mountainous geographical setting and the use of indigenous materials, these fortresses are highly vulnerable to various forms of deterioration. The research addresses two main questions: What materials were most commonly used in the construction of mountain fortresses? And which factors have had the greatest impact on their deterioration? Research method: This article, employing a descriptive-analytical method and relying on both fieldwork and library-based studies, examines the natural and human factors contributing to the destruction of these monuments, including precipitation, frost action, soil erosion, and anthropogenic impacts. Conclusion: The findings indicate that the primary construction materials of mountain fortresses in northwestern Iran are stone and sarooj mortar, while factors such as erosion, earthquakes, human intervention, and environmental conditions have had the most significant impact on their destruction.

https://www.bagh-sj.com/article_243908_35d942d4786cf125e4f77f45425ccd2d.pdf